Scientific Research of Yeast Protein + Creatine + Hydration
CLINICAL STUDIES ON THE FOLLOWING INGREDIENTS:
YEAST PROTEIN (Yestein®)
Effect of Yeast Protein on Muscle Mass and Performance in an Adult Population – a Double Blind, Randomised Controlled Trial
Abstract
This study examined whether yeast protein could match whey protein in supporting lean muscle mass, strength, and endurance when combined with resistance exercise. Researchers compared the effects of yeast protein, whey protein, and a placebo in healthy adult males over 40, using DEXA body composition scans to measure changes over eight weeks.
Methods: A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial involving 79 male participants aged 40 and older. Participants were assigned to one of three groups — yeast protein, whey protein, or placebo — and followed an eight-week at-home resistance training program three times per week. Body composition was assessed via DEXA scan at baseline and week eight.
Results: Both the yeast protein and whey protein groups showed increases in lean trunk mass and total lean mass from baseline, while the placebo group did not. In a subgroup of participants with low protein intake, the yeast protein group showed significantly greater total lean mass gains compared to placebo. Both protein groups demonstrated improvements in muscle strength and endurance compared to baseline.
Conclusion: Yeast protein supplementation may be a viable and sustainable alternative to whey protein for improving lean mass and muscle strength in adults over 40, particularly among those with lower dietary protein intake. The researchers concluded that yeast protein showed comparative efficacy to whey protein when combined with regular resistance training.
Source: D Briskey, RA Skinner, Haibo Zhang, Zhixian Chen, A Rao. "Effect of Yeast Protein on Muscle Mass and Performance in an Adult Population – a Double Blind, Randomised Controlled Trial." Journal of Food and Nutrition Research, 2024, 12(5), 292-300. DOI: 10.12691/jfnr-12-5-9.
https://pubs.sciepub.com/jfnr/12/5/9/
Yeast Protein as an Easily Accessible Food Source
Abstract
This review examined yeast protein biomass (single cell protein, SCP) as a sustainable, nutritionally complete alternative to traditional protein sources such as meat, dairy, and plants. The authors explored the production of yeast protein from various waste substrates, its amino acid profile, nutritional benefits, and safety considerations for human and animal consumption.
Methods: A comprehensive literature review drawing on published research across multiple yeast species — including Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Yarrowia lipolytica, and Candida spp. — examining protein content, amino acid composition, digestibility, bioavailability, nucleic acid content, and safety data from both animal and human nutrition contexts.
Results: Yeast protein biomass was found to contain all essential amino acids required by the FAO for human nutrition, with protein content comparable to or exceeding that of meat and soybean. The essential amino acid profile of Saccharomyces cerevisiae — including isoleucine, leucine, lysine, phenylalanine, threonine, and valine — met or exceeded FAO requirements for adults. Yeast biomass was also found to be a natural source of B-complex vitamins, trace minerals, and beta-glucans. The protein digestibility corrected amino acid score (PDCAAS) of yeast SCP was noted to compare favorably with traditional protein sources. Yeast protein was identified as naturally low in lipids and sodium, and free from common allergens including dairy, gluten, and soy.
Conclusion: Nutritional yeast protein biomass may represent a high-quality, sustainable, and bioavailable protein source for human nutrition — particularly suited for vegan and vegetarian diets, older adults, and individuals with elevated protein needs. The authors concluded that yeast SCP provides a complete amino acid profile with a healthy balance of essential amino acids, making it a viable and cost-effective alternative to conventional protein sources.
Source: Monika Elżbieta Jach, Anna Serefko, Maria Ziaja, Marek Kieliszek. "Yeast Protein as an Easily Accessible Food Source." Metabolites, 2022, 12(1), 63. DOI: 10.3390/metabo12010063. PMCID: PMC8780597; PMID: 35050185.
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8780597/
Evaluation of the Nutritional Quality of Yeast Protein in Comparison to Animal and Plant Proteins Using Growing Rats and INFOGEST Model
Abstract
This study evaluated the protein quality of yeast protein and compared it directly against common animal proteins — including whey concentrate and isolate — and plant proteins including soy, wheat, and pea. Researchers assessed amino acid composition, digestibility, and key protein quality scores to determine yeast protein's suitability as a sustainable alternative protein source for human nutrition.
Methods: Protein quality was assessed using two validated models: growing rats (in vivo) to measure true ileal digestibility, and the INFOGEST in vitro digestion protocol. Key metrics evaluated included true protein digestibility (TPD), true ileal digestibility (TID), amino acid score (AAS), protein digestibility-corrected amino acid score (PDCAAS), and digestibility-corrected amino acid score (DIAAS) for individuals over three years of age.
Results: Yeast protein demonstrated the highest ratio of indispensable to dispensable amino acids among all proteins tested. Its PDCAAS reached 100% for individuals over three years of age, and its amino acid score surpassed all plant proteins tested. However, yeast protein showed lower true digestibility compared to both animal and plant proteins in both in vivo and in vitro models — a finding the researchers attributed primarily to its cell wall structure rather than its amino acid profile. Its DIAAS exceeded that of soy, wheat, and pea proteins.
Conclusion: Yeast protein may serve as a high-quality, sustainable protein source with a well-balanced essential amino acid profile that compares favorably to plant proteins. The researchers noted its particular potential as a complementary ingredient to help balance the amino acid profile of plant-based foods, while acknowledging that digestibility remains an area for further optimization.
Source: Xin Cao, Hongjuan Liu, Miao Yang, Kanmin Mao, Xinzheng Wang, Ziyu Chen, Mingqi Ran, Liping Hao. "Evaluation of the Nutritional Quality of Yeast Protein in Comparison to Animal and Plant Proteins Using Growing Rats and INFOGEST Model." Food Chemistry, 2024. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2024.141178.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0308814624028280
Yeast Protein Modulates Metabolites Derived from the Human Gut Microbiota of Older Male Adults Ex Vivo to Strengthen Gut Barrier Function and Reduce Inflammation
Abstract
This study examined how yeast protein influences the gut microbiome and metabolome of older adults, and whether those changes may help reduce inflammation and strengthen the intestinal barrier — key mechanisms associated with healthy aging. Researchers compared yeast protein directly against whey protein isolate and soy protein isolate using a clinically validated ex vivo model of the human gut.
Methods: The ex vivo SIFR® (Systemic Intestinal Fermentation Research) technology was used to simulate full gastrointestinal digestion and colonic fermentation using fecal samples from six healthy male adults aged 50–65 years. Each protein source was tested at a dose equivalent to 40 g per day. Outcomes included short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) production, gut microbial diversity and composition, untargeted metabolite profiling, gut barrier integrity (measured via transepithelial electrical resistance), and immune markers including the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 and pro-inflammatory markers TNF-α, IL-1β, and CXCL-10.
Results: All three protein sources — yeast, whey, and soy — increased SCFA production, promoted microbial diversity, reinforced gut barrier integrity, raised IL-10, and reduced pro-inflammatory markers compared to the no-substrate control. Yeast protein most strongly reinforced gut barrier integrity under both normal and stress conditions, produced the lowest levels of gas (suggesting superior digestive tolerability), and generated the lowest levels of trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO) — a compound associated with elevated cardiovascular risk in older adults. Yeast protein and soy protein specifically restored butyrate-producing microbial species associated with healthy aging, including Faecalibacterium prausnitzii, Roseburia hominis, and Dysosmobacter welbionis. All proteins stimulated the production of beneficial amino acid-derived metabolites including indoles and polyamines, which are linked to anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, and longevity-associated effects via gut-organ axes.
Conclusion: Yeast protein demonstrated comparable or superior effects to whey and soy protein in key measures of gut health and healthy aging. The researchers concluded that yeast protein may represent a well-tolerated, sustainable protein source with meaningful potential to modulate the gut microbiome, reduce inflammation, and preserve intestinal barrier function — all of which may become increasingly important as adults age. The authors noted that further human clinical trials are needed to confirm these findings.
Source: Pieter Van den Abbeele, Lam Dai Vu, Jonas Poppe, Ingmar A. J. van Hengel, Aurélien Baudot, Yan Zhang, Zhixian Chen, Jun Yan. "Yeast Protein Modulates Metabolites Derived from the Human Gut Microbiota of Older Male Adults Ex Vivo to Strengthen Gut Barrier Function and Reduce Inflammation." Frontiers in Nutrition, 2025. DOI: 10.3389/fnut.2025.1534imi.
https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/microbiology/articles/10.3389/fmicb.2025.1697734/full
Yeast Protein as a Novel Dietary Protein Source: Comparison with Four Common Plant Proteins in Physicochemical Properties
Abstract
This study systematically compared the structural, nutritional, rheological, and thermal properties of yeast protein against four widely used plant proteins — soy protein isolate, pea protein isolate, wheat gluten, and peanut protein — to evaluate its potential as a sustainable alternative protein source for food applications.
Methods: Laboratory analysis was conducted on yeast protein derived from Saccharomyces cerevisiae (AngelYeast Co., Ltd.) alongside the four plant proteins. Assessments included surface morphology via scanning electron microscopy, sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE), surface hydrophobicity, intrinsic fluorescence and UV-visible spectroscopy, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) for secondary structure analysis, in vitro protein digestibility using a multi-enzyme system, rheological properties and apparent viscosity, and thermogravimetric analysis for thermal stability.
Results: Yeast protein demonstrated an in vitro digestibility of approximately 85% — comparable to pea protein isolate and above 80% for all proteins tested — confirming it as a high-quality protein by this measure. Yeast protein exhibited the highest thermal stability of all proteins compared, with the slowest degradation rate as temperature increased, suggesting a higher degree of molecular crosslinking. It displayed a relatively low and stable apparent viscosity across shear rates — a property that may make it suitable for use in foods designed for individuals with swallowing difficulties. Its surface hydrophobicity was second only to pea protein isolate among the proteins tested, suggesting potential for emulsification applications. Structurally, yeast protein was characterized predominantly by β-sheet content and a high proportion of ordered secondary structures.
Conclusion: Yeast protein may represent a high-quality, thermally stable, and functionally versatile alternative protein with digestibility comparable to common plant proteins. The researchers concluded that its unique combination of thermal stability, low viscosity, and high digestibility provides meaningful potential for food processing applications — and that further investigation into its functional and processing properties is warranted to guide product development.
Source: Chengxin Ma, Songgang Xia, Jian Song, Yukun Hou, Tingting Hao, Shuo Shen, Ku Li, Changhu Xue, Xiaoming Jiang. "Yeast Protein as a Novel Dietary Protein Source: Comparison with Four Common Plant Proteins in Physicochemical Properties." Food Chemistry: X, 2023. DOI: 10.1016/j.fochx.2023.100775. PMCID: PMC10412773; PMID: 37575129.
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10412773/
CREATINE MONOHYDRATE
Impact of Creatine Supplementation and Exercise Training in Older Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Abstract
This systematic review and meta-analysis assessed the combined effects of creatine supplementation and exercise training on physical performance and body composition in older adults. It was designed as an updated quantitative analysis incorporating the most recent randomized controlled trials available at the time of the literature search in August 2024.
Methods: Three databases — Scopus, Web of Science, and PubMed — were searched following PRISMA guidelines. Twenty randomized controlled trials met the inclusion criteria, comprising a total of 1,093 participants aged 55 and older — 69% female and 31% male. All included studies compared a creatine plus exercise group against a placebo plus exercise group. Primary outcomes analyzed were one-repetition maximum strength, body fat percentage, and bone mineral density. Methodological quality was assessed using the PEDro scale, with an average score of 7.95 out of 10 across included studies.
Results: Creatine supplementation combined with exercise training produced a statistically significant improvement in one-repetition maximum strength in older adults compared to exercise training with placebo alone. Subgroup analysis showed significant improvements specifically in leg press and lat pull-down strength. A significant reduction in body fat percentage was also observed in the creatine plus exercise group, though this finding was sensitive to the removal of one high-weight study and should be interpreted with caution. Creatine supplementation combined with exercise did not produce a significant effect on total body bone mineral density. No serious adverse effects on kidney or liver function were reported across the included studies, though minor gastrointestinal events were noted in some studies during the loading phase.
Conclusion: Combining creatine supplementation with exercise training may meaningfully improve muscle strength and functional performance in older adults, with lower body strength being of particular clinical importance given its greater age-related decline. The researchers concluded that creatine supplementation represents a potentially valuable adjunct to exercise programs for supporting physical independence and quality of life in the aging population, while noting that further research is needed to clarify optimal dosing, long-term safety, and effects on bone density.
Source: Ghazal Sharifian, Parastou Aseminia, Diako Heidary, Joseph I Esformes. "Impact of Creatine Supplementation and Exercise Training in Older Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis." BMC Geriatrics, 2025. DOI: 10.1186/s12877-025-05867-3. PMCID: PMC12506341; PMID: 41062952.
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12506341/
Creatine Loading Does Not Preserve Muscle Mass or Strength During Leg Immobilization in Healthy, Young Males: A Randomized Controlled Trial
Abstract
This randomized controlled trial investigated whether creatine loading prior to and during a period of forced muscle disuse could prevent or reduce the loss of muscle mass and strength in healthy young men. The study sought to determine if elevated muscle creatine content — achieved through a loading protocol — could offset the well-documented decline in muscle that occurs during immobilization.
Methods: Thirty healthy young men were randomly assigned to either a creatine supplementation group or a placebo group in a double-blind design. The creatine group underwent a five-day loading phase before one leg was immobilized in a full-leg cast for seven days, followed by seven days of recovery. Quadriceps muscle cross-sectional area was measured via CT scan, and leg muscle strength was assessed using a one-repetition maximum knee extension test at multiple time points. Muscle biopsies were taken to measure creatine content and muscle fiber characteristics.
Results: The five-day creatine loading phase successfully increased total muscle creatine content in the creatine group. However, despite this increase, no differences in muscle mass or strength loss were found between the creatine and placebo groups during the seven-day immobilization period. Both groups experienced a reduction in quadriceps cross-sectional area and a decline in muscle strength, with no significant differences between them. These findings held even when only the subjects who showed the greatest response to creatine loading were analyzed separately. During the subsequent recovery week, no differences in muscle mass or strength regain were observed between groups either.
Conclusion: Creatine supplementation prior to and during short-term leg immobilization did not prevent or reduce the loss of muscle mass or strength in healthy young males. The researchers noted that while creatine may not protect muscle during complete disuse, it may still offer benefits in supporting muscle mass and strength regain during active rehabilitation involving prolonged resistance-type exercise training.
Source: Evelien M P Backx, Roland Hangelbroek, Tim Snijders, Marie-Louise Verscheijden, Lex B Verdijk, Lisette C P G M de Groot, Luc J C van Loon. "Creatine Loading Does Not Preserve Muscle Mass or Strength During Leg Immobilization in Healthy, Young Males: A Randomized Controlled Trial." Sports Medicine, 2017. DOI: 10.1007/s40279-017-0670-z. PMCID: PMC5507980; PMID: 28054322.
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5507980/
Effect of Creatine Supplementation During Resistance Training on Lean Tissue Mass and Muscular Strength in Older Adults: A Meta-Analysis
Abstract
This systematic review and meta-analysis examined whether creatine supplementation combined with resistance training produces greater gains in lean tissue mass and muscular strength in older adults compared to resistance training alone. The review was conducted to provide an updated and larger analysis than prior meta-analyses, as the number of studies in this area had nearly doubled since earlier reviews.
Methods: PubMed and SPORTDiscus databases were searched for randomized controlled trials examining creatine monohydrate supplementation during resistance training in adults aged 50 and older. Twenty-two studies met the inclusion criteria, comprising 721 participants — both men and women, with mean ages ranging from 57 to 70 years across studies. Resistance training was performed two to three days per week for durations ranging from seven to 52 weeks. Primary outcomes were whole-body lean tissue mass, chest press strength, and leg press strength.
Results: Creatine-supplemented groups showed significantly greater increases in lean tissue mass compared to placebo, as well as significantly greater gains in both upper body and lower body strength. These findings held when studies combining creatine with other supplements were excluded, and when studies involving participants with chronic conditions were removed from the analysis. The majority of studies reported no adverse effects on kidney or liver function. Minor gastrointestinal events and muscle cramping were reported in a small number of studies but did not lead to participant withdrawal.
Conclusion: Creatine supplementation during resistance training may increase lean tissue mass and both upper and lower body muscular strength in older adults. The researchers identified several possible mechanisms including enhanced ATP resynthesis during high-intensity exercise, cellular swelling that may activate protein synthesis, potential stimulation of satellite cell activity, and possible reductions in oxidative stress and muscle protein catabolism. The authors noted that while results across individual studies are variable, the pooled evidence consistently favors creatine supplementation as a beneficial adjunct to resistance training in the older adult population.
Source: Philip D Chilibeck, Mojtaba Kaviani, Darren G Candow, Gordon A Zello. "Effect of Creatine Supplementation During Resistance Training on Lean Tissue Mass and Muscular Strength in Older Adults: A Meta-Analysis." Open Access Journal of Sports Medicine, 2017. DOI: 10.2147/OAJSM.S123529. PMCID: PMC5679696; PMID: 29138605.
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5679696/
MAGNESIUM
Role of Magnesium in Skeletal Muscle Health and Neuromuscular Diseases: A Scoping Review
Abstract
This scoping review examined the biological role of magnesium in skeletal muscle function, including its effects on muscle metabolism, muscle fiber integrity, regeneration, and recovery from exercise-induced damage. The review also explored the potential relevance of magnesium supplementation in conditions characterized by muscle weakness and atrophy.
Methods: A systematic search of PubMed was conducted following PRISMA-ScR guidelines, covering all studies published up to May 2024. From 305 studies identified, 20 met the inclusion criteria — four preclinical and 16 clinical studies. Studies were evaluated by a technical expert panel of five medical specialists with expertise in skeletal muscle disorders.
Results: Magnesium was found to act as a cofactor for over 300 enzymes and to play a central role in ATP metabolism, protein synthesis, muscle contraction, and oxidative stress regulation. Preclinical research demonstrated that magnesium helps modulate pathways governing skeletal muscle homeostasis, may counteract muscle proteolysis by inhibiting calcium-dependent degradation pathways, and promotes myogenic differentiation through mTOR signaling and activation of key muscle regeneration genes. Clinical studies showed that magnesium supplementation may improve muscle mass, respiratory muscle strength, and post-exercise recovery, and may reduce muscle soreness and inflammation in active individuals and clinical populations. Hypomagnesemia was frequently observed across multiple muscle-related conditions and was associated with muscle weakness, cramping, fatigue, and impaired muscle recovery. The review also noted that individuals who are physically active, eat less than recommended, or experience increased sweat losses may be particularly at risk of suboptimal magnesium levels.
Conclusion: The evidence suggests that maintaining adequate magnesium levels — through dietary intake or supplementation — may have meaningful implications for muscle mass, power, and physical performance, particularly in populations at risk of muscle atrophy or weakness. The researchers highlighted magnesium's potential as a therapeutic adjunct alongside exercise training in older adults and those experiencing muscle decline, while noting that further research is needed to fully define optimal dosing strategies and long-term outcomes.
Source: Sara Liguori, Antimo Moretti, Marco Paoletta, Francesca Gimigliano, Giovanni Iolascon. "Role of Magnesium in Skeletal Muscle Health and Neuromuscular Diseases: A Scoping Review." International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 2024, 25(20), 11220. DOI: 10.3390/ijms252011220.
https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/25/20/11220
Effects of Magnesium Supplementation on Muscle Soreness in Different Types of Physical Activities: A Systematic Review
Abstract
This systematic review examined the effects of magnesium supplementation alone — without other combined supplements — on muscle soreness in physically active individuals. It also aimed to identify the optimal type, timing, and dosage of magnesium supplementation for reducing exercise-induced muscle soreness and supporting recovery.
Methods: Three electronic databases — PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science — were searched following PRISMA 2020 guidelines and pre-registered with PROSPERO. From 1,254 articles identified, four randomized studies met all inclusion criteria, comprising 73 physically active participants between the ages of 19 and 27. Included studies examined magnesium supplementation in the context of resistance training, long-distance running, basketball, and professional cycling. Only studies using magnesium supplementation in isolation — without co-supplementation with other substances — were included.
Results: All four included studies reported positive effects of magnesium supplementation on muscle soreness and recovery markers. One study using magnesium glycinate found that supplementation significantly reduced perceived muscle soreness at 24, 36, and 48 hours post-exercise compared to the control group, and meaningfully improved feelings of recovery. A separate study found beneficial effects on blood glucose levels and muscle soreness following a strenuous 10 km downhill run. Two studies in team and endurance sport athletes found that magnesium supplementation offered a protective effect against exercise-induced muscle damage markers. The review also found that during intense exercise, magnesium is redistributed from the plasma to working tissues, and that prolonged or high-intensity exercise may deplete magnesium stores — potentially contributing to greater lactate accumulation, reduced glucose availability, and increased muscle soreness.
Conclusion: Magnesium supplementation may reduce muscle soreness, improve recovery, and help protect against exercise-induced muscle damage in physically active individuals. The researchers concluded that those engaged in regular intense exercise may benefit from a magnesium intake approximately 10–20% above the standard recommended daily allowance, ideally taken in capsule form around two hours before physical activity. The authors noted that magnesium citrate and glycinate forms may offer favorable bioavailability, and that further larger studies are needed to establish definitive type, timing, and dosage recommendations.
Source: Maria Grazia Tarsitano, Federico Quinzi, Katia Folino, Francesca Greco, Francesco Pio Oranges, Claudia Cerulli, Gian Pietro Emerenziani. "Effects of Magnesium Supplementation on Muscle Soreness in Different Types of Physical Activities: A Systematic Review." Journal of Translational Medicine, 2024. DOI: 10.1186/s12967-024-05434-x. PMCID: PMC11227245; PMID: 38970118.
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11227245/
Magnesium Matters: A Comprehensive Review of Its Vital Role in Health and Diseases
Abstract
This comprehensive review examined the wide-ranging physiological roles of magnesium in human health, with particular attention to its involvement in energy production, muscle function, cardiovascular health, metabolic regulation, bone health, and mental well-being. The review also explored the health consequences of magnesium deficiency and the potential therapeutic implications of supplementation across multiple chronic conditions.
Methods: A narrative review synthesizing findings from preclinical, epidemiological, and clinical studies examining magnesium's role across cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, musculoskeletal health, psychiatric disorders, respiratory disease, and osteoporosis. The review drew on experimental studies, randomized controlled trials, meta-analyses, and epidemiological data to characterize magnesium's physiological significance and the consequences of deficiency or insufficiency.
Results: Magnesium was found to act as a cofactor for over 300 enzymatic reactions — and by some estimates over 600 — including those central to ATP synthesis, protein synthesis, DNA replication, and glucose metabolism. In muscle physiology specifically, magnesium regulates calcium homeostasis by blocking calcium channels during muscle relaxation, preventing excessive calcium influx and the muscle spasms, cramps, and weakness associated with low magnesium levels. Magnesium deficiency was linked to increased neuromuscular excitability, impaired muscle recovery, and reduced exercise performance. In studies of older adults, lower magnesium levels were associated with reduced muscle mass and physical performance, and supplementation demonstrated improvements in muscle strength, endurance, and exercise tolerance. The review also found that magnesium supports the Mg-ATP complex required for all glycolytic enzymes and energy transfer reactions in muscle cells. Additionally, adequate magnesium intake was associated with reduced low-grade inflammation, lower oxidative stress markers, and improved insulin sensitivity — all of which may indirectly support muscle preservation during weight loss or aging.
Conclusion: Magnesium is an indispensable mineral with broad implications for musculoskeletal, metabolic, and overall health. The review concluded that ensuring adequate magnesium intake — particularly for older adults, physically active individuals, and those eating significantly less than usual — may help preserve muscle function, support energy metabolism, reduce exercise-induced soreness, and protect against age-related physical decline. The authors noted that magnesium supplementation presents a well-tolerated, evidence-supported strategy for addressing deficiency in at-risk populations, while recommending consultation with healthcare professionals for individualized dosing.
Source: Ghizal Fatima, Andrej Dzupina, Hekmat B Alhmadi, Aminat Magomedova, Zainab Siddiqui, Ammar Mehdi, Najah Hadi. "Magnesium Matters: A Comprehensive Review of Its Vital Role in Health and Diseases." Cureus, 2024. DOI: 10.7759/cureus.71392. PMCID: PMC11557730; PMID: 39539878.
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11557730/
Unlocking the Power of Magnesium: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Regarding Its Role in Oxidative Stress and Inflammation
Abstract
This systematic review and meta-analysis evaluated the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of dietary and supplemental magnesium by examining its impact on established biomarkers of oxidative stress and inflammation. The review also assessed the bioavailability of different magnesium supplement forms and their relevance for clinical use.
Methods: A systematic search of PubMed was conducted following PRISMA guidelines and pre-registered with PROSPERO, covering studies published from 2000 to 2025. From 51 identified articles, 28 met the inclusion criteria — encompassing both animal and human studies. Six of these were included in a formal meta-analysis examining the effects of magnesium supplementation on nitric oxide, total antioxidant capacity, malondialdehyde, glutathione, and C-reactive protein (CRP). A separate meta-analysis aggregated all oxidative stress biomarker data using Z-score standardization. Study quality was assessed using the Cochrane Risk of Bias-2 tool.
Results: The meta-analysis found a statistically significant reduction in CRP levels with magnesium supplementation — a marker of systemic inflammation — with minimal heterogeneity across studies, suggesting consistent anti-inflammatory effects. However, no conclusive effect on other oxidative stress biomarkers, including total antioxidant capacity, malondialdehyde, or glutathione, was observed across the meta-analysed studies. In animal studies, magnesium deficiency consistently led to increased oxidative stress, elevated pro-inflammatory cytokines, and mitochondrial dysfunction — all of which were reversed or reduced with magnesium supplementation. Human studies more broadly showed that magnesium supplementation was associated with improvements in glycaemic control, insulin sensitivity, lipid profile, and blood pressure, particularly in individuals with type 2 diabetes or cardiovascular conditions. Regarding bioavailability, the review confirmed that organic magnesium forms — including magnesium glycinate and magnesium citrate — are generally better absorbed and better tolerated than inorganic forms such as magnesium oxide, with magnesium glycinate specifically noted for its minimal gastrointestinal side effects and suitability for long-term daily use.
Conclusion: Magnesium supplementation may exert a meaningful anti-inflammatory effect, evidenced by a significant reduction in CRP levels. Its direct antioxidant effects on other biomarkers remain less certain and may depend on baseline magnesium status, the form of supplement used, and individual health conditions. The researchers concluded that further well-designed, adequately powered clinical trials are needed to fully characterize magnesium's role in oxidative stress modulation, and emphasized that magnesium glycinate and citrate represent the most evidence-supported forms for supplementation due to their superior bioavailability and tolerability.
Source: Violeta Cepeda, Marina Ródenas-Munar, Silvia García, Cristina Bouzas, Josep A. Tur. "Unlocking the Power of Magnesium: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Regarding Its Role in Oxidative Stress and Inflammation." Antioxidants, 2025, 14(6), 740. DOI: 10.3390/antiox14060740.
https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3921/14/6/740
SODIUM & POTASSIUM
The Implications of Sodium and Potassium on Muscle Fatigue: A Literature Review and Dynamic Mathematical Model
Abstract
This literature review and dynamic modeling study examined how shifts in sodium and potassium levels during repeated muscle stimulation affect muscle membrane excitability, force generation, and fatigue. The study sought to bring together existing electrophysiological evidence into a coherent, interactive model capable of predicting short-term muscle fatigue based on electrolyte changes alone.
Methods: A systematic search of PubMed and Google Scholar was conducted using terms including muscle fatigue, sodium, potassium, electrolyte balance, membrane potential, and action potential. From 98 potentially relevant studies, 29 were selected based on inclusion criteria requiring sodium or potassium values before or after muscle contraction. These data were used to construct a dynamic mathematical model using STELLA® software, drawing on established physiological parameters including normal intracellular and extracellular concentrations of sodium and potassium, diffusion coefficients through the t-tubular network, and Na⁺-K⁺ ATPase pump activity rates.
Results: The review found clear evidence that electrolyte balance — specifically the relationship between sodium and potassium inside and outside muscle cells — plays a significant role in muscle membrane excitability and fatigue. During repeated high-intensity muscle stimulation, potassium accumulates in the extracellular t-tubular network while sodium becomes depleted there, causing progressive membrane depolarization. As the membrane becomes more depolarized, voltage-gated sodium channels lose responsiveness to nerve signals, calcium release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum is reduced, and muscle force generation declines. The combined effect of increased extracellular potassium and decreased extracellular sodium was found to act synergistically to reduce membrane excitability. The mathematical model produced results consistent with published experimental values, including average t-tubular potassium concentrations during intense exercise and the characteristic pattern of declining force generation over time. The rate of the Na⁺-K⁺ ATPase pump, the diameter of muscle fibers, and the architecture of the t-tubular network were all identified as major determinants of how quickly fatigue develops.
Conclusion: Plasma electrolyte levels — particularly sodium and potassium — appear to correlate meaningfully with muscle force generation and the rate of fatigue. The researchers concluded that maintaining adequate electrolyte balance is essential for preserving muscle membrane excitability and physical performance, with practical implications extending beyond athletics to cardiac, neural, and general muscle function. The authors noted that the model requires further refinement and human testing, and that additional electrolyte channels not included in the current version may introduce some error.
Source: Aaron Jones, Robert Davidson, PhD. "The Implications of Sodium and Potassium on Muscle Fatigue: A Literature Review and Dynamic Mathematical Model Using STELLA® Software." Logan College of Chiropractic, 2012.
https://www.logan.edu/mm/files/LRC/Senior-Research/2012-aug-15.pdf
Influence of Hydration and Electrolyte Supplementation on Incidence and Time to Onset of Exercise-Associated Muscle Cramps
Abstract
This randomized controlled study examined whether consuming a carbohydrate-electrolyte beverage — compared to no fluid intake — could reduce the incidence of exercise-associated muscle cramps or delay their onset in individuals with a history of cramping during physical activity.
Methods: Thirteen college-aged men with a documented history of exercise-associated muscle cramps completed two counterbalanced trials in a hot environment. In one trial, participants consumed a carbohydrate-electrolyte beverage containing sodium, potassium, and chloride at a rate matching individual sweat loss. In the other, participants consumed no fluids. Both trials used an identical calf-fatiguing protocol designed to induce cramping. Cramp incidence and time to onset were the primary outcomes.
Results: No statistically significant difference in the overall incidence of cramps was found between the two conditions — nine participants cramped in the electrolyte trial versus seven in the dehydration trial. However, among the seven participants who cramped in both trials, time to onset was more than doubled in the electrolyte trial — participants were able to exercise for an average of nearly 37 minutes before cramping, compared to under 15 minutes when dehydrated. Participants who cramped also had significantly higher sweat rates than those who did not. The findings suggested that while electrolyte and fluid supplementation did not prevent cramps entirely, it meaningfully delayed their onset, allowing for substantially longer exercise duration.
Conclusion: Consuming a carbohydrate-electrolyte beverage before and during exercise in a hot environment may delay the onset of exercise-associated muscle cramps, allowing individuals to exercise longer before cramping occurs. However, dehydration and electrolyte loss alone do not appear to be the sole causes of exercise-associated muscle cramps, as the majority of participants still cramped even when hydrated and electrolyte-supplemented. The researchers concluded that local muscle fatigue likely plays a significant and independent role, and that electrolyte replenishment may be most beneficial in lower-intensity or longer-duration activity where fatigue accumulates more gradually.
Source: Alan P Jung, Phillip A Bishop, Ali Al-Nawwas, R Barry Dale. "Influence of Hydration and Electrolyte Supplementation on Incidence and Time to Onset of Exercise-Associated Muscle Cramps." Journal of Athletic Training, 2005, 40(2), 71–75. PMCID: PMC1150229; PMID: 15970952.
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1150229/
Postexercise Rehydration: Potassium-Rich Drinks Versus Water and a Sports Drink
Abstract
This randomized crossover study compared the rehydration effectiveness, fluid retention, thirst-quenching ability, tolerance, and palatability of four different beverages following exercise-induced dehydration — including a potassium-rich drink, fresh coconut water, a conventional sports drink, and plain water.
Methods: Twelve healthy, physically active adults were dehydrated to approximately 2% of body mass through exercise in an environmental chamber set to 32°C. On four separate days in randomized order, participants consumed one of four beverages — fresh coconut water, bottled water, a conventional sports drink, or a potassium-rich experimental drink — at a volume equal to 120% of their body mass loss. Urine output was collected and self-reported perceptions recorded over three hours to assess fluid retention, thirst, tolerance, and palatability.
Results: Plain water produced significantly higher urine output than either the sports drink or the potassium-rich drink, indicating lower fluid retention. Fluid retention was significantly greater for the sports drink than for water. The potassium-rich drink and fresh coconut water produced fluid retention outcomes comparable to the sports drink — though not statistically superior to it. All four beverages were well tolerated and palatable. Thirst increased immediately after exercise but returned to baseline after consuming a small volume of any beverage. No drink maintained a fully positive net fluid balance over the full three-hour observation period, though the deficit was significantly greater with water than with the sports drink.
Conclusion: The addition of potassium in coconut water and the potassium-rich experimental drink did not produce rehydration benefits beyond those already provided by a conventional sodium-containing sports drink. The researchers concluded that sodium remains the primary electrolyte driver of fluid retention after exercise, and that potassium-rich drinks may offer comparable — but not superior — rehydration to sodium-containing sports drinks. Plain water was the least effective option for post-exercise fluid retention.
Source: Alexandra Pérez-Idárraga, Luis Fernando Aragón-Vargas. "Postexercise Rehydration: Potassium-Rich Drinks Versus Water and a Sports Drink." Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism, 2014. DOI: 10.1139/apnm-2013-0434. PMID: 25017113.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25017113/
Potassium Intake, Skeletal Muscle Mass, and Effect Modification by Sex: Data from the 2008–2011 KNHANES
Abstract
This large cross-sectional study examined the association between dietary potassium intake and skeletal muscle mass in the general adult population, with particular attention to whether the relationship differed between men and women.
Methods: Data from 16,558 adults aged 19 and older were drawn from the Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES) conducted between 2008 and 2011. Daily potassium intake was assessed via 24-hour dietary recall. Appendicular skeletal muscle mass — the combined muscle mass of both arms and legs — was measured using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) and expressed as a skeletal muscle index (SMI). Low muscle mass was defined using established Asian Working Group for Sarcopenia thresholds. Participants were divided into five groups by potassium intake level, and associations with low muscle mass were analyzed using logistic regression models with multiple levels of adjustment, including protein intake, energy intake, physical activity, and common health conditions.
Results: Higher dietary potassium intake was associated with a graded increase in skeletal muscle index across the study population. In men, higher potassium intake was significantly associated with lower odds of low muscle mass even after full adjustment for energy intake, protein intake, physical activity, and health conditions — with those in the highest potassium intake group showing meaningfully lower odds of low muscle mass compared to those in the lowest group. In women, the association trended in the same direction but was attenuated after adjusting for total energy intake, suggesting that overall dietary quantity may play a larger role in muscle mass outcomes in women. The researchers proposed that potassium may help preserve muscle mass through multiple mechanisms, including neutralizing mild metabolic acidosis — which can accelerate muscle protein breakdown — and by improving insulin sensitivity and reducing chronic inflammation, both of which are associated with muscle loss.
Conclusion: Higher dietary potassium intake may be associated with a lower risk of low skeletal muscle mass, particularly in men. The researchers concluded that potassium may support muscle preservation through acid-base regulation, improved insulin sensitivity, and reduced inflammation — suggesting that adequate potassium intake could be a meaningful dietary factor in maintaining muscle mass alongside protein and exercise. The authors noted that the cross-sectional design limits causal conclusions and that future clinical trials are needed.
Source: Yu-Ji Lee, Mirae Lee, Yu Mi Wi, Seong Cho, Sung Rok Kim. "Potassium Intake, Skeletal Muscle Mass, and Effect Modification by Sex: Data from the 2008–2011 KNHANES." Nutrition Journal, 2020. DOI: 10.1186/s12937-020-00614-3. PMCID: PMC7456505; PMID: 32861249.
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7456505/
BIOTIN
Biotin: DNA to Diet
Abstract
This comprehensive review examined the multifaceted biological roles of biotin (vitamin B7) — from its structural chemistry and biosynthesis pathways across organisms to its function as a metabolic cofactor, its involvement in DNA regulation, its dietary requirements, and its clinical applications. The review aimed to provide an integrated understanding of biotin research spanning cellular metabolism, biosynthesis, and human health.
Methods: A systematic narrative review synthesizing published research on biotin's chemical structure, biosynthesis pathways in prokaryotes and eukaryotes, transport mechanisms, cofactor roles in carboxylase enzymes, histone biotinylation, gene regulation, dietary sources and requirements, deficiency consequences, supplementation evidence, and emerging pharmaceutical applications including drug conjugate development.
Results: Biotin functions as an essential cofactor for five key carboxylase enzymes in humans — including acetyl-CoA carboxylase, pyruvate carboxylase, and propionyl-CoA carboxylase — that are central to fatty acid biosynthesis, fatty acid oxidation, amino acid metabolism, and gluconeogenesis. These enzymes collectively facilitate the conversion of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins into usable cellular energy. Beyond its metabolic role, biotin participates in DNA replication, histone modification through biotinylation, and cell signaling via the sGC-PKG pathway — influencing gene expression across hundreds of genes. Humans cannot synthesize biotin and obtain it from dietary sources and gut microbiota. The adequate intake for adults is estimated at approximately 30 mcg per day by both the US Institute of Medicine and the European Food Safety Authority. Biotin deficiency — though rare — can manifest as hair loss, skin conditions, and neurological symptoms including seizures, hypotonia, and developmental delays. The review confirmed that biotin is not toxic even at doses many times the recommended intake, and that high doses have been used therapeutically in rare neurological conditions. Regarding metabolism specifically, biotin's activation of acetyl-CoA carboxylase and its role in gluconeogenesis make it essential for ensuring that nutrients consumed are efficiently converted into the energy cells can use.
Conclusion: Biotin is an indispensable water-soluble vitamin with wide-ranging implications for cellular energy metabolism, gene regulation, and overall health. The review concluded that biotin's role as a cofactor for the enzymes governing fatty acid synthesis, amino acid catabolism, and gluconeogenesis makes it foundational to healthy macronutrient metabolism — particularly relevant for individuals managing their nutritional intake during weight loss or calorie restriction. The authors noted that while biotin supplements are widely used for hair and skin health, robust clinical trial evidence in healthy populations without underlying deficiency remains limited.
Source: Shivani Karalia, Vinod Kumar Meena. "Biotin: DNA to Diet." Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry, 2025. DOI: 10.1016/j.jnutbio.2025.110081.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0955286325002438
Biotin in Health and Disease: A Review of Its Metabolic and Pharmacological Implications
Abstract
This review examined biotin's physiological roles as a coenzyme for carboxylase enzymes, its metabolism and absorption mechanisms, the conditions that may lead to deficiency, and its established and emerging therapeutic applications. The review aimed to synthesize current knowledge on biotin's significance as both a critical micronutrient and a therapeutic molecule.
Methods: A comprehensive narrative review drawing on published research covering biotin's chemical structure, transport mechanisms, metabolic functions, gene regulatory roles, deficiency states, and clinical applications — including both established uses and emerging therapeutic investigations in neurological conditions.
Results: Biotin functions as an essential coenzyme for five carboxylase enzymes — methylcrotonyl-CoA carboxylase, acetyl-CoA carboxylase 1 and 2, propionyl-CoA carboxylase, and pyruvate carboxylase — all of which play critical roles in energy metabolism, fatty acid synthesis, amino acid catabolism, and gluconeogenesis. All except one of these enzymes are localized in the mitochondria, underscoring biotin's particular importance for mitochondrial energy production. These carboxylases are initially synthesized as inactive forms and require biotinylation by holocarboxylase synthetase to become active. Biotin is absorbed via the sodium-dependent multivitamin transporter and is predominantly excreted in urine as metabolic byproducts. Beyond its enzymatic roles, biotin influences gene expression through histone biotinylation and transcriptional modulation of key nutrient transporters. Humans cannot synthesize biotin and rely on dietary sources and gut microbiota. While a standard diet generally provides sufficient biotin, deficiency can arise from genetic metabolic disorders, chronic alcoholism, excessive raw egg consumption, prolonged parenteral nutrition, or certain medications. Deficiency symptoms include neurological and dermatological manifestations, which are typically reversed with pharmacological biotin supplementation. High-dose biotin therapy has been explored in neurological conditions including biotin-responsive basal ganglia disease and multiple sclerosis. Biotin supplementation has demonstrated a favorable safety profile even at high doses, with no established toxic threshold.
Conclusion: Biotin is an indispensable water-soluble vitamin whose role as a cofactor for the five carboxylase enzymes makes it essential for the metabolic pathways that convert nutrients into usable energy — including fatty acid synthesis, gluconeogenesis, and amino acid metabolism. The review concluded that biotin's broad metabolic reach, its influence on gene expression, and its therapeutic safety profile position it as both a fundamental nutritional requirement and a promising candidate for diverse clinical applications. The authors emphasized the need for further research into biotin's gene regulatory roles and the optimization of therapeutic strategies for its clinical use.
Source: Akif Altun, Arzu Selamioğlu, Asuman Gedikbaşı. "Biotin in Health and Disease: A Review of Its Metabolic and Pharmacological Implications." PharmaNutrition, 2026. DOI: 10.1016/j.phanu.2026.100488.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2213434426000174
Vitamin Supplementation in Sports: A Decade of Evidence-Based Insights
Abstract
This narrative review synthesized a decade of peer-reviewed research on vitamin supplementation in athletes, evaluating the prevalence of deficiencies, physiological mechanisms, supplementation strategies, and effects on performance, recovery, and injury prevention across all major vitamins including the B-complex group.
Methods: Structured searches were conducted across PubMed, ScienceDirect, PEDro, and the Cochrane Library, covering 2010 to 2024 and supplemented with earlier seminal studies. Eligible studies included human randomized controlled trials, cohort, cross-sectional, and case-control studies examining vitamin status, supplementation, or performance outcomes in athletes or physically active adults. Study quality was assessed using SANRA criteria.
Results: Regarding biotin (Vitamin B7) specifically, the review confirmed its role as a cofactor in carboxylation reactions essential for macronutrient metabolism — including fatty acid synthesis, amino acid catabolism, and gluconeogenesis. In athletic contexts specifically, the review noted that evidence remains limited, with no athlete-specific randomized controlled trials demonstrating performance effects from biotin supplementation alone. One B-complex athlete trial studied biotin at a dose of 1,000 mcg per day, though isolated effects from biotin could not be separated from other B vitamins in the formulation. The review placed biotin in its broader metabolic context alongside other B vitamins, all of which function as essential coenzymes in the energy pathways that support athletic output and recovery. The authors noted that biotin's deficiency risk in athletes is currently unknown, and that animal models suggest potential benefits under oxidative stress conditions.
Conclusion: Biotin is an essential cofactor for the metabolic pathways that convert carbohydrates, fats, and proteins into cellular energy — functions that are foundational to both everyday metabolism and physical performance. While direct evidence for ergogenic effects of biotin supplementation in athletes is insufficient to draw conclusions, its role in macronutrient metabolism makes it a meaningful nutritional component for individuals with elevated energy demands or reduced dietary intake. The review's overarching conclusion was that B-vitamin sufficiency supports energy metabolism and recovery with moderate certainty, while supplementation beyond sufficiency does not consistently yield performance benefits in well-nourished individuals.
Source: Magdalena Wiacek, Emilia Nowak, Piotr Lipka, Remigiusz Denda, Igor Z Zubrzycki. "Vitamin Supplementation in Sports: A Decade of Evidence-Based Insights." Nutrients, 2025. DOI: 10.3390/nu17091530. PMCID: PMC12845069; PMID: 41599826.
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12845069/
IRON
Vitamins and Minerals for Energy, Fatigue and Cognition: A Narrative Review of the Biochemical and Clinical Evidence
Abstract
This comprehensive narrative review examined the biochemical roles of key vitamins and minerals — including iron — in cellular energy production, oxygen transport, antioxidant defense, and neurological function, with particular focus on how inadequate status of these micronutrients contributes to physical fatigue, mental fatigue, and cognitive impairment.
Methods: A narrative review synthesizing published biochemical, physiological, and clinical evidence for nine vitamins (B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B7, B9, B12, and C) and three minerals (iron, magnesium, and zinc). Priority was given to human studies in healthy general populations and individuals with inadequate nutrient intake. Data from supplementation trials and observational studies were included. Iron's roles in energy metabolism, oxygen transport, antioxidant defense, and brain function were reviewed across all relevant sections.
Results: Regarding iron specifically, iron plays multiple foundational roles in human physiology with direct relevance to energy, fatigue, and physical performance. Regarding oxygen transport, approximately two-thirds of the body's iron is contained in hemoglobin, enabling red blood cells to carry oxygen to muscles and the brain. Each hemoglobin molecule can transport four oxygen molecules, and blood carries 50–70 times more oxygen than plasma alone — a capacity that depends entirely on iron. Iron deficiency anemia reduces blood oxygen transport, impairing endurance capacity and energetic efficiency. Myoglobin, another iron-containing protein, enables short-term oxygen storage in muscle cells, helping meet the high oxygen demands of working muscles. Regarding cellular energy production, iron is incorporated into the porphyrin ring structure of heme enzymes — including the cytochromes in the electron transport chain — which serve as electron carriers during ATP synthesis. Six different heme iron proteins and six iron-sulphur proteins are found across the respiratory chain complexes, and succinate dehydrogenase — a key citric acid cycle enzyme — also contains iron. Regarding physical performance, iron deficiency is consistently associated with fatigue, reduced endurance capacity, impaired aerobic capacity, and lower work efficiency. A meta-analysis of six randomized controlled trials in premenopausal women with non-anemic iron deficiency found that iron supplementation reduced fatigue complaints by more than 60%. Further meta-analyses demonstrated that iron supplementation improved both maximal and submaximal exercise performance, and reduced heart rate at defined workloads. Regarding cognition, iron deficiency — even without anemia — is associated with impaired attention, memory, and learning in both children and adults. A study in 149 young women found that iron-sufficient women performed significantly better and faster on cognitive tasks than those with iron deficiency anemia, with cognitive performance declining as severity of iron deficiency increased. Iron supplementation in anemic children significantly improved attention, concentration, and global cognitive scores.
Conclusion: Iron is essential for oxygen delivery to working muscles and the brain, for cellular energy production via the electron transport chain and citric acid cycle, and for cognitive and physical performance. Inadequate iron status — even at sub-clinical levels — may contribute meaningfully to fatigue, reduced stamina, and impaired daily energy levels. The authors concluded that ensuring adequate iron intake, alongside other key micronutrients, is critical for maintaining normal physical and mental function, particularly in populations at risk of insufficiency.
Source: Anne-Laure Tardy, Etienne Pouteau, Daniel Marquez, Cansu Yilmaz, Andrew Scholey. "Vitamins and Minerals for Energy, Fatigue and Cognition: A Narrative Review of the Biochemical and Clinical Evidence." Nutrients, 2020, 12(1), 228. DOI: 10.3390/nu12010228. PMCID: PMC7019700; PMID: 31963141.
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7019700/
Iron Status and Physical Performance in Athletes
Abstract
This systematic review examined the importance of iron status for physical performance in athletes, how physical training affects iron balance, and whether optimization of iron-related markers beyond standard deficiency thresholds can further support athletic performance.
Methods: A structured literature search of PubMed was conducted using terms including iron, iron deficiency, hemoglobin, athletes, and athletic performance, limited to studies published between 2013 and 2023 involving healthy athletes aged 19–44 years. From 410 initial articles, 11 original research studies met all inclusion criteria. Studies examined oral and intravenous iron supplementation, timing of iron intake relative to exercise, hypoxic recovery effects on iron absorption, and the influence of vitamin D and B12 on iron status and hemoglobin. Performance outcomes included VO2max, VO2peak, energetic efficiency, lactate response, time trials, strength measurements, mood, and fatigue.
Results: Iron supplementation produced the most significant improvements in physical performance in athletes who had the lowest baseline iron stores — particularly those with serum ferritin below 30 ng/mL — with measurable gains in VO2max, hemoglobin, endurance capacity, energetic efficiency, and lactate response in iron-deficient athletes. In iron-sufficient athletes training under normal conditions, supplementation generally did not produce direct performance gains, though it could prevent iron store decline under heavy competitive loads and improved mood and reduced fatigue ratings. Iron was identified as essential for oxygen delivery via hemoglobin, for oxygen storage in muscle via myoglobin, and as a cofactor in the electron transport chain and citric acid cycle — all of which directly affect aerobic capacity and endurance. Iron deficiency without anemia was shown to impair functions of iron-containing enzymes in the respiratory chain, potentially reducing oxidative capacity even before hemoglobin levels fall. Athletes are at elevated risk of iron deficiency due to increased losses through sweating, micro-hemolysis, and — in women — menstrual losses, combined with increased utilization for heightened erythropoiesis during training.
Conclusion: Iron status is a meaningful determinant of physical performance, oxygen transport capacity, and recovery — particularly in athletes with low iron stores. The researchers concluded that monitoring iron status regularly is important for physically active individuals, especially those eating significantly less than usual or engaged in consistent training that increases iron demand and losses. Iron supplementation has the greatest benefit in those who are actually deficient, and should be approached with appropriate medical oversight. Maintaining adequate iron status may help preserve stamina, oxygen delivery to working muscles, and resistance to exercise-induced fatigue.
Source: Andrea Solberg, Håkon Reikvam. "Iron Status and Physical Performance in Athletes." Life (Basel), 2023, 13(10), 2007. DOI: 10.3390/life13102007. PMCID: PMC10608302; PMID: 37895389.
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10608302/
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